A Secular Holiday

Mother’s Day in its modern form was first established in the early 20th century by Anna Jarvis, who wanted to honor her own mother’s legacy and the broader role of motherhood in society. To Jarvis, Mother’s Day was a Christian liturgical event, to be celebrated on Sunday in church. But when President Woodrow Wilson officially established it as an American holiday in 1914, the path to commercialization and secularization was short (to Jarvis’ dismay).

Today, the vast majority of American Jews regard Mother’s Day as a secular occasion that embodies a value hardly foreign to Jewish tradition: honoring one’s mother. It’s not only a value, it’s in fact a Jewish requirement. In the Ten Commandments, the Torah adjures Jews to honor their mother (and their father). It is the only one the Ten Commandments which has a reward attached to observance — a long life.

Because Mother’s Day is now secular and its purpose is consonant with Jewish values, celebrating is not controversial for most Jews. But for a small minority of Jews, the embrace of any non-Jewish holiday poses challenges. Leviticus 18:2 states: “You shall not copy the practices of the land of Egypt where you dwelt, or of the land of Canaan to which I am taking you; nor shall you follow their laws. My rules alone shall you observe, and faithfully follow My laws: I the Lord am your God.” This is generally understood to prohibit copying non-Jewish practices, in everything from holidays to fashion, and this may include Mother’s Day.

Jewish Ways to Celebrate Mothers

The Jewish calendar offers a weekly opportunity to honor women, many of whom are mothers, on Shabbat. It’s traditional in many households to sing Eshet Hayil, “A Woman of Valor” (Proverbs 31), on Friday night — an ancient song praising the industrious, wise and loving matriarch of the home. In some families, Eshet Hayil may feel more personal and spiritually resonant than a Hallmark card, and the opportunities to express the sentiment come every seven days rather than once per year.

Another Jewish opportunity to reflect on motherhood comes yearly on the 11th day of the Jewish month of Cheshvan, traditionally understood as the day the matriarch Rachel died in childbirth. The Torah records that Rachel wanted, more than anything, to be a mother. After years of infertility, in a moment of desolation, she said to her husband, “Give me children or I will die.” (Genesis 30:1) Her wish was at long last granted when her first son was born. Rachel named him Joseph, which means “another one” — a plea to God that she would become a mother again. This wish was also granted when she became pregnant with Joseph’s brother Benjamin but, cruelly, she died in childbirth and never got to raise him. Rachel, for Jews, embodies the desperate longing, wondrous joy and excruciating heartbreak that motherhood may entail. She is often referred to as Rachel imeinu — Rachel our mother — a maternal figure for all Jews.

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The Hebrew word ir (עִיר) means city or town, in both ancient and modern usage. It comes from a verbal root that means “watchful” or “wakeful,” probably because it originally referred to the watchtower of a settlement. In Modern Hebrew, it is distinguished from a kefar, which is the term for a village.

There is no city in Jewish tradition with more religious significance than Jerusalem, the site of the ancient Temple and the modern capital city of the State of Israel. In the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem is called ir david, the City of David, for the ancient king who first made it the Jewish capital. Jerusalem is also called ir hakodesh, the holy city (Isaiah 52:1). The destruction of the city and its Temple in 70 CE was most significant crisis Judaism ever faced, and is memorialized every year on the fast day Tisha B’Av. Jews also commemorate this catastrophe by shatter a glass at a wedding ceremony. Whatever its state, Jerusalem has always been the spiritual capital of Judaism. Jews face Jerusalem to pray and evoke it daily in their prayers. Today, Jerusalem is a thriving metropolis and the capital of the modern Jewish state.

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The words ish (אִישׁ) and isha (אִישָׁה) mean man and woman, respectively. They first appear in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 2:23, right after God has taken a rib from Adam, the first man, and used it to fashion Eve, the first woman. Upon seeing her, Adam names her as follows:

This one at last

Is bone of my bones

And flesh of my flesh.

This one shall be called the woman (isha),

For from the man (ish) was she taken.

The words ish and isha frequently have the connotation of husband and wife. A person may refer to their wife as ishti (“my woman”) and to their husband as ishi (“my man”).

The plural of these words is anashim, people. This word is frequently found, in its construct form, in the names of contemporary synagogues such as Anshe Chesed (People of Loving Kindness) or Anshe Emet (People of Truth). This plural form hints at an older form of the word ish, which is enosh.

The words ish and isha can be combined with other nouns to describe people. For instance, in Deuteronomy 33:1, Moses is referred to as ish Elohim, a man of God. Elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, warriors are called anshei milchamah, people of war.

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The words abba (אַבָּא) and ima (אִמָא) are used commonly by Hebrew speakers to mean father and mother. They are not, however, originally Hebrew. The Hebrew terms for male and female parents are av and em. Abba and ima are Aramaic in origin. However, they entered the Hebrew lexicon in ancient times.

In the talmudic period, abba and ema were not only titles, they were frequently used as names. For example, the rabbinic sage Rav was named Abba Arikha and the wife of Rabbi Eliezer was named Ima Shalom. Abba was also used as an honorific for some esteemed rabbis.

The Importance of Parents

Jewish tradition requires children to honor their parents. This is, in fact, one of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:12 and Deuteronomy 5:16), and the only one which has a reward attached to it: living long and well.

Parents also have obligations toward their offspring. The Torah requires fathers to circumcise their sons (Genesis 17:10–14), and obligates parents to educate their children (Deuteronomy 11:19). The Talmud elaborates on these obligations in several places, including the following:

A father is obligated with regard to his son to circumcise him, and to redeem him (if he is a firstborn), and to teach him Torah, and to marry him to a woman, and to teach him a trade. And some say: A father is also obligated to teach his son to swim. (Kiddushin 29a)

God as a Parent

In Jewish tradition, God is figured in many ways: a mighty creator, a fearsome warrior, a majestic ruler, a jealous spouse and a loving parent. Rabbinic literature explores this idea through an interpretation of the passage above, found in Numbers Rabbah 17:

Our rabbis taught: A person is obligated to do five things for his son. God can be compared to a father and the Jewish people to God’s son … Just as a father is obligated to teach his child Torah, God taught the Jews Torah as it says (Deuteronomy 11:19): “Teach them to your children.” And it is written: “I am God your teacher.” Just as a father is obligated to teach his children mitzvot, God taught the mitzvot to the Jews. Just as a father is obligated to marry his son to a woman, so too God told mankind: “Be fruitful and multiply.” A father is obligated to his son in the following ways: to give him food and drink, to bathe him, to give him ointments, and to clothe him, and thus did God for the Jews, as it is written (Ezekiel 16:9): “And I washed you in water, and I washed away your blood … and I clothed you with embroidered clothing … and My bread which I gave you…”

Jewish prayers build on the parental metaphor, perhaps most notably in the prayer Avinu Malkeinu, which translates to “Our Father, Our King.” 

In modern times, abba and ema have remained the everyday Hebrew terms for mom and dad, used by children who speak Hebrew as their first language.

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The Hebrew words ben (בֵּן) and bat (בַּת) are usually translated as “son” and “daughter.” They mean this in the literal sense, but they are also frequently used to mean simply boy and girl.

The terms ben and bat are always used as part of a person’s Hebrew name. This ritual name is used when a person is called up to the Torah for an aliyah, when prayers are said for their recovery from illness, when they are married (it is written in the ketubah) or divorced (in the get), when they convert to Judaism and when they are recalled in the memorial Yizkor prayer. A ritual name consists of a person’s Hebrew name plus either the word ben or bat followed by either their father’s Hebrew name or their mother’s Hebrew name or both. 

The word bat also appears in the term bat mitzvah, meaning “daughter of the commandment.” A girl becomes a bat mitzvah when she is of an age to be responsible for following the mitzvot, 12 or 13 depending on the Jewish community. When a boy reaches the age of responsibility — 13 in all Jewish communities — he is a bar mitzvah, a son of the commandment. The term “bar” is the Aramaic equivalent of ben.

The terms ben and bat also appear in other descriptive contexts in Jewish tradition. For example, in traditional morning blessings, Jews thank God for making them either ben chorin or bat chorin, both of which means free person. The term ben adam, literally meaning “son of a person,” is used in the Hebrew Bible to simply mean “human” but in later rabbinic and modern usage came to mean someone who was particularly righteous.

The words ben and bat are also used in modern Hebrew to describe someone’s age. A woman who is 30 years old is called bat sheloshim, literally “daughter of 30.” Boys and men are similarly described — for instance, ben sheva is used for a boy who is seven years old. Another modern Hebrew use of the term is ben zug (“zug” means partner) and bat zug, referring to one’s spouse.

A particularly interesting use of the word bat is in the rabbinic term bat kol, literally meaning “daughter of a voice.” This refers to a disembodied, heavenly voice recognized to belong to God. The bat kol appears in many rabbinic stories to relate God’s message.

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There are many terms Jews use to describe themselves and each other. Collectively, Jews are am yisrael (the people of Israel), bnai yisrael (the children of Israel), or yiddin (Jews). Individually, one Jew might refer to another as a “member of the tribe” (or MOT, for short) or landsman (meaning a person from the same place). Jews also have several terms for non-Jews, which have a variety of connotations.

Goy 

In Hebrew, goy (plural: goyim) literally means “nation.” In the Bible, goy can refer to any nation, including Israel. Over time, however, it came to refer to all nations except Israel — that is, non-Jews.

Goy is neutral in biblical Hebrew but has taken on varied connotations in modern usage. Depending on context, goy can be neutral, affectionate, humorous or pejorative. For example, one person might casually mention “my goyish friend who eats lime jello” without any malice, while others might find this objectionable.

Read about Jewish comedian Lenny Bruce’s “Jewish and Goyish” routine.

Gentile

The word gentile is the most widely used English term for a non-Jew. It originates from the Latin gentilis, meaning “of a clan or tribe,” and entered English through biblical translations of the Hebrew term goy.

Similar to goy, gentile was originally meant to be neutral in tone. It is often used in academic and interfaith settings for that reason. It simply means someone who is not Jewish — without any judgment or emotional weight. Jews are not the only people who use this term in this way. Mormons, for instance, refer to non-Mormon as gentiles.

Despite the originally neutral resonance, gentile sometimes carries negative connotations, implying that one who carries the label is a heathen or an idolater.

Non-Jew

A more contemporary term for people who are not Jewish is simply “non-Jew.” This is preferred by some because it is factual and direct.

Non-Jews engaging with Jewish texts or communities might encounter any of these terms and wonder what they mean or how they’re being used. When in doubt, it’s always appropriate to ask for clarification.

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The Yiddish word balabusta (also spelled baleboste) refers to a Jewish woman who is a capable, competent mistress of her home. A true balabusta is not just a homemaker — she is a figure of strength and resourcefulness, deeply embedded in Jewish tradition and identity.

The word balabusta is derived from the Hebrew words ba’al (owner or master) and bayit (house), but it is in fact a Yiddish word. Literally, a balabusta is the “mistress of the house” — the home manager. The masculine form is balabus (in Hebrew, ba’al ha-bayit) and it refers to the male head of the household. But the feminine balabusta carries more complex resonance, implying reserves of strength and upstanding character, as well as impressive stamina and efficiency.

22 more Yiddish words you should know.

In consonance with the centuries in which the term took hold, a balabusta is a woman who efficiently performs domestic labors, manages the household finances, rears the children and makes the family’s religious life beautiful by cooking Shabbat and holiday meals. She is also a generous hostess and charitable to the poor. She is someone who exemplifies the characteristics of the eshet hayil, the “woman of valor,” described in Proverbs 31, which is traditionally chanted by husbands in honor of their wives at Shabbat dinner. Being a balabusta requires fortitude to uphold the physical and cultural infrastructure of Jewish life in the home. The title is considered a high compliment.

In modern usage, the word balabusta can have both positive and critical undertones, depending on context. On the one hand, it can be an affectionate compliment: “She’s such a balabusta!” might mean someone hosts beautifully, keeps an immaculate home, or cooks up a storm for guests. On the other hand, it can imply someone who is overly controlling and narrowly focused on domestic life to the exclusion of other pursuits. This change in meaning coincided with a cultural shift in the 20th century, which saw a Hollywood trope of men complaining of wives who were “ballbusters” — an English term that, despite sounding similar, has no etymological relation to balabusta.

Feminist critiques have also wrestled with the balabusta ideal, recognizing how it both honors women’s labor and confines them to traditional roles. Some contemporary Jewish women embrace the label with pride, reclaiming it as a badge of competence and power. Others reject it as outdated or restrictive.

Despite enormous cultural shifts that have redefined women’s roles, balabusta remains a beloved word in many Jewish households. It appears in cookbooks, family lore, nostalgic stories and even playful memes. Some Jewish women today refer to themselves as “modern balabustas” — not necessarily traditional homemakers, but multi-taskers who juggle family, career and Jewish commitments with skill and warmth.

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Shabbat shalom is a common Hebrew greeting used on Shabbat, the Jewish sabbath. It is pronounced shah-BAHT shah-LOME.

The word Shabbat (שַׁבָּת) refers to the seventh day of the week, a day of rest that begins at sundown on Friday and ends at nightfall on Saturday. In imitation of God, who in the biblical account created the world in six days and rested on the seventh, Jews mark every seventh day as a day of rest.

Learn more about Shabbat.

The word shalom (שָׁלוֹם) is a Hebrew word most commonly translated as “peace,” but its meaning is broader, connoting wholeness and well-being. It is also used as a greeting in Hebrew, meaning both hello and goodbye.

A closer look at the meaning of “shalom.”

According to the rabbis, the experience of Shabbat is supposed to be one-sixtieth of the World to Come — a taste of true wholeness and well-being. When Jews wish one another Shabbat shalom, they are extending the wish that the other person will experience that well-being on the Jewish day of rest.

When to Say Shabbat Shalom

Jews wish one another Shabbat shalom on the day of rest, which begins at sundown on Friday and ends after dark on Saturday. The location does not matter: One can say it at a Shabbat meal, when meeting in synagogue or when running into one another in the street. It is also customary to wish another person Shabbat shalom in the days and hours leading up to Shabbat, acknowledging that the day of rest is on the horizon. In Israel, it is used frequently in secular as well as religious contexts to acknowledge that the weekend is around the corner.

As soon as Shabbat ends on Saturday night, Shabbat shalom is dropped in favor of a different greeting, shavua tov, which means “good week.”

Other Shabbat Greetings

Among some Ashkenazi communities, the greeting “Gut Shabbos” (literally “Good Sabbath”) is common, as is the mixed Yiddish-English version “Good Shabbos.” 

Learn more Shabbat greetings.

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What is Yom Kippur?

Yom Kippur is a Jewish day of fasting and prayer that falls ten days after Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish new year. According to Jewish tradition, every individual’s fate for the year is “written” on Rosh Hashanah and “sealed” on Yom Kippur. In ancient times, Yom Kippur was marked by a series of complex rituals of public atonement performed by the high priest in the Jerusalem Temple. Today, Yom Kippur is observed as a day of personal reflection and prayer.

How Do You Celebrate Yom Kippur?

As a serious day in which one’s fate for the coming year is traditionally said to hang in the balance, Yom Kippur isn’t “celebrated” so much as observed. Fasting and are prayer are the central components of the holiday.

Yom Kippur begins at dusk with the Kol Nidrei service. Five times over the course of holiday the Viddui prayer of confession is recited. The liturgical high point of the day is the recitation of Unetaneh Tokef, a haunting meditation that was the inspiration for the Leonard Cohen classic Who By Fire? Yom Kippur is also the only time during the year when Jews prostrate themselves on the ground during the Avodah service, which recounts the rituals performed on Yom Kippur in the Temple. The final prayer of the holiday is Neilah, in which the central metaphor is the closing of the heavenly gates, the final opportunity to plead with God for a healthy and prosperous year.

The other major component of Yom Kippur is the fast, which lasts a full 25 hours from dusk on the eve of Yom Kippur until nightfall after Neilah. The obligation to fast applies to all able-bodied Jewish adults over the age of bar/bat mitzvah. Abstaining from food and drink is in fact one of five abstentions traditionally observed on Yom Kippur, including sex, bathing, anointing with oils and perfumes and wearing leather.

Your Yom Kippur Questions, Answered

Do I need tickets to attend Yom Kippur services?
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More Yom Kippur Resources

Must-know Yom Kippur words and phrases
Tips for staying healthy during the Yom Kippur fast
9 Things You Didn’t Know About Yom Kippur
Candle-Lighting Blessings for Yom Kippur
The Benefits of Fasting on Yom Kippur
Kol Nidre: The Power of Words
What to Wear On Yom Kippur
The Jewish View of Sin
Everything About Yom Kippur Is an Invention

Future Yom Kippur Dates

In 2026, Yom Kippur will begin on Sunday September 20 and conclude on Monday September 21.

In 2027, Yom Kippur will begin on Sunday October 10 and conclude on Monday October 11.

In 2028, Yom Kippur will begin on Friday September 29 and conclude on Saturday September 30.

Last year, Yom Kippur was celebrated from October 11-12.

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In recent decades, Jewish feminists have argued that not only is this language inconsistent with the Jewish understanding of what God is (and is not), but it also reifies the second-class status women have long occupied in Jewish life. To rectify this, various alternatives to the way God has been traditionally rendered in text have been proposed. Below are some of the most prominent. 

Creative Translations:

The most common approach to dealing with gendered God language in the prayer book is by retranslating it. Rather than revise the well-known blessing formulation, for example, these prayer books offer an English translation with gender-neutral English words. For example, Siddur Lev Shalem, the 2016 Conservative movement prayer book, translates melekh as “sovereign.” Similarly, the 2007 Reform movement prayer book Mishkan T’filah translates melekh as “ruler.” Av harachamim, the opening of a short prayer recited on Shabbat morning that literally translates to “father of mercy,” is rendered as “source of mercy.” 

Feminized Renditions:

Alternatively, some have chosen to refigure not just translations but longstanding Hebrew formulations in feminine form. This approach is employed extensively in Siddur Hakohanot, the prayer book associated with the Hebrew priestess movement. For example, the standard blessing formulation is rendered in Siddur Hakohanot as: Brukhah at Shekhinah, eloteinu ruakh ha’olam. Some of the adjustments are purely grammatical, as when the Sabbath eve hymn Shalom Aleichem is rendered as Shalom Aleichen, the second person plural pronoun in the feminine form. Other changes are more substantive, changing melekh to malkah (queen) or adonai (my lord) to Shekhinah (literally “presence”), the term employed by medieval kabbalists to refer to the feminine dimension of God. 

Poetic Alternatives:

Rather than merely re-conjugating masculine grammar, some liturgists have gone much further, composing new versions of ancient Jewish prayers to reflect contemporary feminist sensibilities. Among the leading exponents of this approach is the poet Marcia Falk, whose Book of Blessings proposes a number of creative alternatives to standard prayers that largely avoid gendered language entirely. Her blessing over bread, for example, replaces the standard blessing opening with an entirely original alternative: “Let us bless the source of life, who brings forth bread from the earth.” (In Hebrew, the first person plural “let us” is gender-neutral.) Her version of the foundational Shema prayer — which in the original, found in Deuteronomy 6:4, refers to “Lord, our God” — is rendered like this: “Hear O Israel — the divine abounds everywhere and dwells in everything; the many are One.” 

Adoption of God Language Alternatives

Orthodox prayer books for the most part continue to translate the text literally, but the liberal movements have overwhelmingly adopted the first approach, retaining the original Hebrew formulations while offering more gender-neutral translations. While some other adjustments to the Hebrew have been made to accommodate contemporary sensibilities — most notably, the addition of the matriarchs beside the patriarchs in the opening of the Amidah prayer — the traditional Hebrew language for God has been left largely intact. Extensive changes to the Hebrew, whether by adopting a feminine conjugation or rewriting them entirely, remains a fringe practice. 

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What is Passover?

Passover is a festival of freedom.

It commemorates the Israelites’ Exodus from Egypt, and their transition from slavery to freedom. The main ritual of Passover is the seder, which occurs on the first two nights (in Israel just the first night) of the holiday — a festive meal that involves the re-telling of the Exodus through stories and song and the consumption of ritual foods, including matzah and maror (bitter herbs). The seder’s rituals and other readings are outlined in the Haggadah — today, many different versions of this Passover guide are available in print and online, and you can also create your own.

What are some Passover practices?

The central Passover practice is a set of intense dietary changes, mainly the absence of hametz, or foods with leaven. (Ashkenazi Jews also avoid kitniyot, a category of food that includes legumes.) In recent years, many Jews have compensated for the lack of grain by cooking with quinoa, although not all recognize it as kosher for Passover. The ecstatic cycle of psalms called Hallel is recited both at night and day (during the seder and morning prayers). Additionally, Passover commences a 49-day period called the Omer, which recalls the count between offerings brought to the ancient Temple in Jerusalem. This count culminates in the holiday of Shavuot, the anniversary of the receiving of the Torah at Sinai.

What foods do we eat on Passover?

Matzah, or unleavened bread, is the main food of Passover. You can purchase it in numerous stores, or you can make your own. But the holiday has many traditional, popular foods, from haroset (a mixture of fruit, nuts, wine, and cinnamon) to matzah ball soup — and the absence of leavening calls upon a cook to employ all of his/her culinary creativity. View our extensive collection of Passover recipes here, or check out The Nosher.

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The Omer is a time of rebirth in the natural world and anticipation of the growing season as well as a celebration of redemption and the divine covenant. Yet counterintuitively to some, Jews observe this time as a period of semi-mourning. This means that some Jews refrain from cutting their hair, listening to music or getting married during the Omer, among other restrictions. Most observe these mourning restrictions only until the 33rd day of the Omer, called Lag Ba’omer, after which they are lifted.

Why the Omer is a Period of Semi-Mourning

There is no biblical basis for the mourning rituals that are observed during the Omer. Leviticus 23:15–16 prescribes simply counting the days and then bringing an offering of new grain. The Shulchan Aruch, Judaism’s most authoritative law code, states that the rituals of mourning commemorate a plague that killed 24,000 of Rabbi Akiva’s students in the first century CE and nearly put an end to Judaism (Orach Chayim 493:1). The Talmud (Yevamot 62b) describes the catastrophe as follows:

Rabbi Akiva had 12,000 pairs of students in an area of land that stretched from Gevat to Antipatris in Judea, and they all died in one period of time, because they did not treat each other with respect. And the world was desolate of Torah until Rabbi Akiva came to our rabbis in the South and taught his Torah to them. This second group of disciples consisted of Rabbi Meir, Rabbi Yehuda, Rabbi Yosei, Rabbi Shimon, and Rabbi Elazar ben Shamua. And these are the very ones who upheld the study of Torah at that time. It is taught that all of them died in the period from Passover until Shavuot. Rav Hama bar Abba said, and some say it was Rabbi Hiyya bar Avin: They all died a bad death. What is it that is called a bad death? Rav Nahman said: Diphtheria.

As with many other tragedies — notably the destruction of Jerusaelm, as retold in the Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 55–57 — the rabbis ascribe the tragedy to dissension and lack of respect within the Jewish people. Each year, as Jews prepare anew to receive the Torah at Sinai, they are reminded that lack of respect for one another can lead to total annihilation.

Though the story of Rabbi Akiva’s students is a reason the mourning rituals developed, they may have served another purpose in Jewish history. In the Middle Ages especially, springtime — and with it the observance of Easter in the Christian world — brought an increase in antisemitic violence. This likely reinforced the Jewish custom of observing mourning rituals during this period.

Mourning Rituals Observed During the Omer

Judaism has an array of mourning customs, only some of which are observed during the Omer. Refraining from marriage is one, although getting engaged is permitted. The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chayim 493:1) states that although marriage is not allowed, there is no post-facto punishment if someone does get married during this time.

Another restriction is cutting one’s hair and shaving. For this reason, many Jewish men who are clean shaven the rest of the year grow a beard during the Omer. Hair cutting restrictions are usually observed only until Lag Ba’omer, the 33rd day of the Omer which, according to some versions of the story in the Talmud, is said to be the time when the plague that killed Rabbi Akiva’s students lifted. Not only is it permissible to cut one’s hair at that point, for many Jewish children that is when they have their first haircut — called an upsherin.

Precise customs around refraining from haircuts and shaving during the Omer vary across Jewish communities. Some observe the restriction on cutting hair up until the day after Lag Ba’omer, the 34th day of the Omer, and others drop the restriction only on the 33rd itself but resume it for the rest of the Omer. Others permit cutting hair up until the Rosh Chodesh Iyyar, which falls just two weeks into the Omer, but then restrict haircuts thereafter — moving the 33 day restriction to the end of the Omer rather than the beginning. And some authorities permit exceptions to the hair cutting prohibition throughout the Omer, such as cutting one’s hair in honor of a brit milah.

Many Jews also refrain from listening to music and dancing during the Omer, or at least during the first 33 days. This is because these activities are celebratory and not in keeping with the mournful mood of the season. An exception is made for Passover, during which there is a commandment to be happy. Those whose livelihood depends on these activities, such as professional musicians, are permitted to continue with them as well. Some extend the prohibition on music to include human voice and also other forms of entertainment, such as movies and television — a restriction more commonly observed during the three weeks leading up to Tisha B’Av.

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The basic practice today is to thoroughly clean the home of all leavened products and sell anything that is too costly or onerous to remove. Then, many Jews will kasher their kitchens, covering surfaces and ritually preparing cookware and utensils, most commonly by immersion in boiling water, to render them permitted for use on the holiday. Some opt to put away their year-round dishes and cookware and use replacement items designated for Passover. Practices around house preparation can vary widely depending on family custom and fidelity to Jewish law. Several kosher authorities also produce guides and videos for those seeking more detail.  

Getting Clean

The most basic and essential step in readying a house for Passover is to clean it of all possible crumbs of hametz. In the context of Passover cleaning, this typically entails more than routine washing of surfaces and organizing clutter. Some Jews will search the folds of sofas, scrub the shelves of the refrigerator, run a self-cleaning cycle on the oven, and even turn out coat pockets and fan out the pages of books — any place where a crumb of leavened food might possibly have fallen. Because Passover normally falls out in mid-April, this often doubles as spring cleaning. 

Swapping Out Utensils

Many observant Jewish homes reserve special cookware, flatware and dishes specifically for Passover use. These are often stored away the entire year and used only for the one week of the Passover holiday. Those without special Passover utensils can render some of their kitchenware kosher for Passover. Generally speaking, any glass or metal utensils — stainless steel, cast iron, aluminum, etc. — can be kashered by washing them thoroughly, waiting 24 hours, and then immersing them in boiling water. Ceramics, plastic and wood cannot be kashered for Passover according to Jewish law because they are considered porous and absorb the flavors of hametz with which they come in contact. 

Covering Surfaces

Many observant homes will cover all the surfaces in their kitchens that may come in contact with food with foil or contact paper for the duration of Passover. Countertops made from metal or stone can be kashered with boiling water similar to kitchen pots and pans, but this can be cumbersome and even dangerous, so some people choose to cover them instead. The same is true of sinks — metal and stone can be cleaned and kashered with boiling water after 24 hours, but ceramic sinks are covered. Many will also cover surfaces in their refrigerators after they have been thoroughly cleaned. 

Selling Hametz

Any hametz that is kept in the home over the holiday, either because it’s too expensive or onerous to get rid of, can be sold to a non-Jewish person for the duration of Passover. This transaction is typically completed early in the day prior to the holiday. Once the holiday is complete, the hametz is repurchased and is available for use. Often, this is done by delegating a rabbi as an agent to sell hametz on one’s behalf, but some choose to sell hametz on their own or using an online service.

Final Preparations

The final steps in cleaning the house for Passover are a pair of related rituals performed in the 24 hours before the holiday begins. Bedikat hametz is a final search for hametz products conducted by candlelight the night before Passover begins. Biur hametz is the ritual burning of any final leavened products performed no later than mid-morning on the day Passover begins. In many communities, a bonfire is prepared in a public space for this purpose. 

The post How to Clean Your Home for Passover appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

The song is a Passover classic — but its origins are unclear, its status as the seder capstone a mystery, and its meaning subject to a wide range of interpretation.

Authorship of Chad Gadya is unknown. The song is believed to have entered the Passover liturgy some time in the 16th century, long after most of the Haggadah was already fixed. A famous Haggadah published in Prague in 1526 does not contain the song, while a 1590 edition of it does. There is a tradition that it was known to, and perhaps authored by, Rabbi Eleazar of Worms, a German kabbalist born in the 12th century. It has also been suggested that the song is inspired by a midrash in which Abraham debates the biblical king Nimrod, who tries to persuade him to worship fire. Abraham counters that water extinguishes fire, so Nimrod suggests worshipping water. Abraham then counters that the clouds contain water, so Nimrod suggests worshipping the clouds. And so on. 

All these possibilities would seem to fly in the face of a widely asserted claim that the song is a Jewish version of a 17th-century German folk song, “Der Bauer schickt den Jockel aus” (“The Farmer Sends Out Jockel”), about a lazy boy who is sent to cut oats. When Jockel refuses, the farmer sends out a farmhand to fetch him, but the farmhand refuses too, so a dog is sent, and then a club to hit the dog, and so forth. There are also several analogues to the song in other cultures, including the French “Biquette ne Veut pas Sortir du Chou” (“The Nanny-goat Won’t Get Out of the Cabbage”). 

If its origins are cloudy, its symbolism is even more so. It’s often said that each character in the song symbolizes a nation that persecuted the Jewish people. In this telling, the Israelites are represented by the kid, acquired for two zuzim (representing the two tablets of the covenant), and was then oppressed by a succession of ever more powerful empires until its ultimate redemption by God. Many other interpretations accept this basic framework while adopting different associations for the various characters. 

Among the most famous of these was offered by the Vilna Gaon, the 17th-century Lithuanian scholar, who posited that the kid refers to the birthright that Jacob bought from Esau for bread and lentils (two zuzim), and thus symbolizes the special relationship between Israel and God. That blessing then passed to Joseph, who was the object of envy from his brothers, represented by the cat. The dog represents Pharaoh, who enslaved Jacob’s descendants, and the stick represents Moses, who redeemed them (and, famously, carried a rod). The allegory continues throughout Jewish history, culminating in the ultimate redemption and banishment of death that only God can bring. 

Others have suggested that the song represents the journey of a soul through the world, with each of the characters representing an obstacle on the soul’s path to refinement. Or that it’s an indictment of cycles of violence and revenge that escalate until only God is left to restore order and keep the peace. Or that it’s a statement of faith, that even in the face of seemingly endless violence and killing there is a divine justice that will eventually prevail.

Common to all these understandings is a sense of the turbulence, violence and disorder that is endemic to human existence. At the conclusion of a long evening spent retelling the story of the Exodus and celebrating freedom, Chad Yadya seems to present an image of the world in which the strong devour the weak and danger lurks around every corner. Yet at the end of this long progression is God, the one who vanquishes death and brings order to the world.

“The song itself, disarming in its simplicity, teaches the great truth of Jewish hope: that though many nations (symbolized by the cat, the dog, and so on) attacked Israel (the “goat”), each in turn has vanished into oblivion,” writes Rabbi Jonathan Sacks. “At the end of days God will vanquish the angel of death and inaugurate a world of life and peace, the two great Jewish loves.”

The post What Is Chad Gadya Really About? appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

In Jewish sources, Passover is also known by four alternate names, each highlighting a different aspect of the holiday.

Chag HaMatzot (חַג הַמַּצּוֹת) – Feast of Unleavened Bread: This a common name for Passover in the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 23:15, Leviticus 23:6, Deuteronomy 16:16, etc.). This refers to the weeklong festival during which leaven is not consumed. During this week, the five primary grains — wheat, barley, oats, spelt and rye — are eaten only if they are made into matzah, unleavened bread.

Learn to make your own matzah.

Chag HaPesach (חַג הַפֶּסַח) – Festival of the Paschal Sacrifice: The special sacrifice that was historically made on eve of Passover was called the korban pesach, or paschal sacrifice. It commemorates the tenth plague on Egypt, when God sent the Angel of Death to kill the firstborns in every Egyptian household. Ahead of that plague, Moses instructed the Israelites to sacrifice a lamb or goat and mark the doorposts of their homes with blood, which would signal the Angel of Death to pass over that household. This sacrifice, and the ones that were made in commemoration of it in ensuing years, was called the pesach. Jews stopped offering the paschal sacrifices after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE.

Learn more about the paschal sacrifice.

Chag HaAviv (חַג הָאָבִיב) – Festival of Spring: Passover takes place in the Hebrew month of Nisan, which is the first month of spring. An older biblical name for this month is Aviv, a word which refers to newly formed ears of barley. In modern Hebrew, the word aviv means spring. Chag HaAviv is a biblical name for Passover (Exodus 23:15). 

Z’man Cheiruteinu (זְמַן חֵרוּתֵנוּ) – The Season of Our Freedom: This phrase is not found in the Hebrew Bible, but it is part of the prayer liturgy. It highlights the theme of redemption that is central to the holiday.

Discover the hidden arc of the Passover seder.

The post Four Alternate Names for Passover appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

How to Perform Bedikat Hametz

To perform a traditional bedikat hametz you will need:

• A candle or flashlight
• A feather
• A wooden spoon
• A paper bag
• The text of the blessings

The search for hametz is done after nightfall on the 14th of Nisan, the night before the Passover seder. Before starting the search, it is traditional to recite the following blessing:

בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יהוה אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם אֲשֶׁר קִדְּשָׁנוּ בְּמִצְוֹתָיו וְצִוָּנוּ עַל בִּיעוּר חָמֵץ

Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha’olam, asher kid’shanu b’mitzvotav v’tzivanu al biur hametz.

Blessed are You, Lord our God, ruler of the universe, who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the eradication of hametz.

Traditionally, one uses a candle to search corners of the home, high and low. When crumbs of hametz are discovered, they are swept into a wooden spoon using a feather. Collected crumbs are set aside in the paper bag, or some other receptacle, to be burned the following morning. So that this blessing is not said in vain, small pieces of hametz are often intentionally hidden around the house.

Once the search for hametz has been completed, and one is confident there is no more hametz to be found, a declaration is recited to nullify any hametz that might have been overlooked:

כָּל חֲמִירָא וַחֲמִיעָא דְאִיכָּא בִרְשׁוּתִי דְלָא חֲמִתֵּיהּ וּדְלָא בִעַרְתֵּיהּ וּדְלָא יְדַעְנָא לֵיהּ לִבָּטֵל וְלֶהֱוֵי הֶפְקֵר כְּעַפְרָא דְאַרְעָא

Kol chamira v’chami’a d’ika virshuti d’la chamitay u’dla vi’artay u’dla y’dana lay livateil v’lehevay hefker k’afra d’ara.

All hametz in my possession, whether I have seen it or not, whether I have removed it or not, shall be nullified and ownerless, like the dust of the earth.

The Next Morning: Burning the Hametz (Biur Hametz)

The following morning, which is the morning of the Passover seder, the crumbs of hametz collected the previous night are burned by mid-morning (check with your local rabbi for the exact time). Many synagogues hold a communal bonfire for this purpose. A final nullification statement, similar to the one made the previous night, is recited, ensuring that all hametz is removed in both a physical and legal sense.

כָּל חֲמִירָא וַחֲמִיעָא דְּאִכָּא בִרְשׁוּתִי דַּחֲזִתֵּהּ וּדְלָא חֲזִתֵּהּ דַּחֲמִתֵּהּ וּדְלָא חֲמִתֵּהּ דְּבִעַרְתֵּהּ וּדְלָא בִעַרְתֵּהּ לִבָּטֵל וְלהֱוֵי הפְקֵר כְּעַפְרָא דְאַרְעָא

Kol chamira v’chamiya d’ika virshuti d’chazitay u’dla chazitay d’chamitay u’dla chamitay d’vi’artay u’dla vi’artay livateil v’lehevay k’afar d’ara.

All hametz in my possession, whether I have seen it or not, whether I have removed it or not, whether I have destroyed it or not, is hereby nullified and ownerless as the dust of the earth.

The post Bedikat Hametz: The Search for Leaven Before Passover appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

All of this is complicated when Passover begins on a Saturday night making the day that precedes Passover Shabbat, a day with multiple work prohibitions. The previous evening’s hametz search cannot be conducted as normally scheduled because fires are traditionally not kindled on Shabbat. Ditto the burning of the remaining hametz in the morning. Selling hametz is a business transaction, and so is also forbidden on Shabbat. And fasting is almost always prohibited on Shabbat. Consequently, in years when Passover begins on a Saturday night, a number of special accommodations must be made. 

Getting Rid of Hametz Before Shabbat

When Passover begins on a Saturday night, the searching, burning and selling of hametz must be completed prior to the start of Shabbat on Friday night. The final search, known as bedikat hametz, which is typically performed the evening before Passover, is done two nights before, on Thursday evening. Whatever is found is burned on Friday morning, a ritual known as biur hametz. In addition, all the house cleaning and kitchen preparations must also be completed prior to Shabbat, as any cleaning or rendering kitchen utensils fit for use on Passover is forbidden on Shabbat. 

Finally, the selling of any remaining hametz in one’s possession must be completed before Shabbat, since buying and selling are forbidden activities on Shabbat. However, many people will structure the transaction so that while signed before Shabbat, it only takes effect sometime on Saturday morning.

Eating Challah on Shabbat

When Passover begins on a Saturday night, the meals served on Shabbat must be kosher for Passover. Even though it’s technically permitted to eat leavened products until mid-morning on Saturday, the process of readying the kitchen for Passover and ridding the house of leaven has already been completed on Friday. However, many Jews consider it religiously required to make the blessing over bread at two of the three meals traditionally eaten on Shabbat. 

There are two basic approaches to handling this issue. One is to eat a small amount of bread using disposable plates, taking extra care to ensure that no crumbs fall on the table or floor. Any utensils used should be disposed of and any crumbs flushed down the toilet. All of this should be completed by about mid-morning. Many synagogues will hold services early that morning to enable the eating of bread before the cut-off time. 

A second option is to use egg matzah that is certified kosher for Passover. Some Jews have a custom of avoiding matzah prior to Passover so that one consumes matzah for the first time each year at the seder itself. But egg matzah, because it is not made solely from flour and water, cannot be used as seder matzah and thus doesn’t run afoul of that custom. 

The Fast of the Firstborn

Typically, this fast is observed on the day before Passover. But when the day before Passover is Shabbat, this isn’t possible, since fasting is not permitted on Shabbat. It’s also not observed on Friday, because fasting on the eve of Shabbat is also not done to avoid entering Shabbat in a state of discomfort. As a result, when Passover begins on Saturday night, the fast is held on the prior Thursday. 

Havdalah on Saturday Night

As is always the case when a Jewish festival begins on a Saturday night, Havdalah, the ceremony that marks the conclusion of Shabbat, is integrated into the kiddush recited at the beginning of the Passover meal. The Passover candles serve as the Havdalah candle, enabling the recitation of the blessing over the flame. But the blessing over spices is eliminated. Finally, the concluding blessing of Havdalah is modified. Instead of blessing God who distinguishes bein kodesh l’chol (“between holy and secular”), the blessing says bein kodesh l’kodesh (“between holy and holy”). 

The post What Happens When Passover Begins on Saturday Night? appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

As an organized effort, the history of kiruv is often traced to postwar America, though some consider legends about the patriarch Abraham preaching monotheism to be an early example, thus rooting kiruv in ancient Jewish text and practice. But it was only in the 1960s, with the establishment of several yeshivas catering directly to less knowledgeable Jews and the early growth of the network of Chabad Hasidic emissaries, that the effort became professionalized. By the late 1980s, there were sufficient numbers working in the field that a professional network, the Association for Jewish Outreach Professionals (later the Association for Jewish Outreach Programs) was formed. By some estimates, as many as 7,000 men and women work as kiruv professionals in the United States, with many thousands more in Israel and all over the world. Countless others may do kiruv work on an informal or personal basis.

Chabad is by far the largest organized kiruv effort in the world, with some 5,000 emissaries operating across the United States and in 100 other countries. Inspired by the movement’s late leader, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, who warned in 1964 that assimilation and intermarriage constituted “spiritual crematoria” just as devastating as the actual crematoria built by the Nazis, thousands of idealistic emissaries fanned out across the globe in an effort to draw fellow Jews closer to traditional religious observance. 

Two other non-Hasidic Israel-based organizations, Ohr Somayach and Aish (formerly Aish HaTorah), also operate internationally and are considered pioneers in the field. Ohr Somayach was founded in the early 1970s in Jerusalem by four rabbis, one of whom, Noach Weinberg, split off to found Aish HaTorah in 1974. Like Schneerson, Weinberg considered Jewish assimilation tantamount to a second Holocaust. Today, Aish operates some 30 satellite branches around the world in addition to its headquarters opposite the Western Wall in Jerusalem. 

The early success of these and other initiatives gave rise to what has been called the Baal Teshuvah movement, in which significant numbers of formerly secular Jews came to embrace Orthodox practice. The phenomenon was noted by President Ronald Reagan in a 1984 speech and has been the subject of numerous magazine and scholarly articles. A 1986 cover story on the subject in New York Magazine reported that one Orthodox synagogue on the Upper West Side of Manhattan had seen a fourfold jump in Shabbat attendance in less than a year. 

The methods of kiruv vary. The Chabad approach largely relies on the warmth and inviting nature of their emissaries, who are well-known for providing all comers with free meals, classes and religious services. Aish and Ohr Somayach operate on a traditional yeshiva model, seeing immersive Torah study, tailored to the particular needs of those with little to no knowledge of Judaism, as the path to religious commitment. Aish’s “signature program” is its Discovery Seminar, which seeks to inspire further study by persuading participants of a rational basis for the Torah’s divine origin. Those who do kiruv work informally may simply invite the less observant for a Shabbat meal and hope they get inspired. 

The impulses behind the kiruv effort are similarly varied. For some activists, it’s demographic. The results of the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, which found that a majority (52 percent) of Jews were intermarried, sparked a round of hand-wringing over a “second Holocaust” based on the assumption — fiercely contested in some quarters — that the children of intermarried couples were less likely to be Jewishly affiliated. For others, kiruv is considered a religious responsibility akin to keeping kosher or observing the Sabbath. Various textual sources are cited for this obligation, including the talmudic dictum that “all Israel is responsible for one another” (Shevuot 39a) and the biblical obligation to rebuke your neighbor if they sin. As Maimonides writes: “It is a mitzvah for a person who sees that his fellow Jew has sinned or is following an improper path to correct his behavior and to inform him that he is causing himself a loss by his evil deeds, as it states (Leviticus 19:17): ‘You shall surely admonish your colleague.’”

Kiruv is not without its critics, with some likening Aish and similar groups to cults in which adherents are pressured to adopt particular lifestyles and are promised fulfillment and happiness if only they strictly follow the program. Others have criticized the groups for preying on vulnerable young people searching for meaning in their lives and prompting them to distance themselves from their less observant families. Aish rejects this characterization out of hand, arguing that it encourages rational thought and free thinking and is solely interested in educating Jews about their heritage. 

The post What Is Kiruv? appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

Jewishness has always been physically distinctive. Jewish bodies are marked with circumcision, Jewish homes are marked with mezuzahs and even in death Jewish graves are often visually obvious — even as their appearance differs substantially over time and across Jewish communities.

Jews eschew cremation and prefer terrestrial interment. Accordingly, Jews have been erecting physical memorials to mark the graves of their loved ones since time immemorial. In the Hebrew Bible, Abraham’s first acquisition in the promised land is a cave in which to bury his wife Sarah, and Jacob sets up a pillar to mark Rachel’s final resting place — the first recorded tombstone in Jewish tradition. Some of the most ancient Jewish archaeological finds are grave markers.

Carving images onto Jewish graves is likewise a longstanding practice, though one that has waxed and waned over the long course of Jewish history. While many Jewish headstones are simple and have no images — including many contemporary Jewish headstones — over the years they have borne a vast array of symbols that reflected religious beliefs, family heritage or the personal lives of the deceased as well as the cultural milieu in which they lived and died. Below are some of the most common symbols found on Jewish graves and their significance.

Star of David (Magen David)

The Star of David, a six-pointed star, is one of the most universally recognized Jewish symbols and of all the symbols on this list the most commonly found on contemporary Jewish graves. It is ubiquitous in Jewish cemeteries and particularly striking in military cemeteries, where fallen Jewish soldiers are buried alongside non-Jews and the Jewish star is the only visual difference between their graves and those of their comrades. 

Menorah

Though the Star of David is perhaps the most recognizable Jewish symbol, the menorah, the seven-branched candelabrum from the ancient Temple in Jerusalem, is in fact a more ancient one. It has been used on Jewish graves even since antiquity.

Priestly Hands

Jews who are the descendants of the priests in the Temple are given special ritual status in the Jewish community. One of their functions is to offer the priestly blessing to the congregation with hands outstretched in a distinctive gesture, with the palms forward and the first and second as well as third and fourth fingers held together, so that the shape of the hand resembles the Hebrew letter shin. Gravestones featuring hands positioned for the traditional priestly blessing indicate that the deceased was a kohen, a member of the priestly lineage. 

Pitcher

In the ancient Temple, the priests were assisted by a group called the Levites, descendents of the ancient Jewish tribe of Levi. One of their functions was to wash the hands of the priests before they performed the Temple service. Especially in Ashkenazi cemeteries, it is common for the headstone of a Levite to bear the image of a pitcher, sometimes with a basin underneath. Sometimes the stones of Levites bear the image of a lyre or harp, because making music in the Temple was also one of the jobs of the Levites.

Books or Torah Scrolls

Books or open Torah scrolls sometimes appear on the graves of scholars and rabbis, highlighting the deceased’s dedication to Torah study.

Tree or Tree Stump

Trees are a potent symbol in Jewish tradition. The Tree of Life, whose fruit granted everlasting life to those who ate it, is sometimes represented on a Jewish grave. A tree stump or tree with broken branches, meanwhile, can be carved onto a headstone to symbolize a life cut short. It is most often found on the graves of those who passed away young and unexpectedly. A full tree can also represent family lineage and continuity.

Candlesticks

Shabbat Candlesticks or candelabras are often carved on the tombstones of Jewish women, signifying their role in lighting Shabbat and holiday candles. 

Lion of Judah

The lion has long been a symbol identified with the Jewish tribe of Judah and King David, who was of that tribe. It evokes strength and courage in addition to Jewish identity.

Crown

A crown represents honor, piety and Torah study. It can symbolize the deceased’s dedication to Jewish faith or their status as a respected leader within the community. It is frequently paired with other symbols including books, lions and kohanic hands.

Other symbols

The symbols above are merely some of the most common on Jewish graves. Jewish cemeteries are replete with all kinds of decorations that represent the lives of the deceased or were in fashion in the time and place in which they lived. In antiquity, a lulav and etrog were commonly carved on Jewish graves. The shofar also had it’s turn as a key Jewish symbol popular on tombstones, perhaps heralding the messianic era. A cluster of grapes is another Jewish image, representing the fecundity of the land of Israel, as are Torah scrolls, tablets of the Ten Commandments and tzedakah boxes. Occasionally, Jewish graves will sport an entire fresco, often of a biblical scene.

Images from nature have also been popular in some times and places: the sun and moon as well as a menagerie of animals, such as deer, goats, bears and birds that sometimes reflect the name of the deceased or characteristics they are remembered for. For example, the Yiddish name Hersh means deer and the Hebrew name Dov means bear.

Symbols borrowed from surrounding cultures are also sometimes found on Jewish graves. For example, Jews who were free masons in the 19th and early 20th centuries often have masonic symbols like compasses or Solomonic knots carved on their graves. Mythical symbols that apparently have no Jewish connection, like dragons, griffins and mermaids are sometimes seen. Symbols far more popular on Christian graves that are also sometimes found on Jewish graves include anchors, cherubs, skulls with crossbones and death’s heads. 

Interested readers are invited to explore Arnold Schwartzman’s slim and visually rich volume, Graven Images: Graphic Motifs of the Jewish Gravestone.

The post Images Found on Jewish Gravestones and What They Mean appeared first on My Jewish Learning.

But long before intermarriage was seen as a demographic worry, it was considered a violation of Jewish law. The principal source for this comes from the seventh chapter of Deuteronomy, which concerns the seven nations occupying the promised land that were to be dislodged so the Israelites could possess it. The text reads:

“When the Lord your God brings you to the land that you are about to enter and possess, and dislodges many nations before you: the Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites … You shall not intermarry with them: do not give your daughters to their sons or take their daughters for your sons. For they will turn your children away from Me to worship other gods, and God’s anger will blaze forth against you, promptly wiping you out. (Deuteronomy 7:1–4)

In context, the prohibition applies solely to the seven Canaanite nations (understood, already in the classical rabbinic period, to be extinct) and does not seem to constitute a blanket prohibition on intermarrying. Moreover, it’s clear that many ancient Jewish heroes did in fact take wives who were not of the faith — including Moses, who married a Midianite woman, and King Solomon, who took many wives from foreign nations. However, later Jewish tradition does not see it this way. Both the Talmud and the later medieval law codes consider any marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew to be forbidden. Later sources go to great lengths to imagine that potentially problematic biblical unions were not the intermarriages they appear to be, suggesting for instance that Moses’ father-in-law eschewed idol worship before Moses married into the family, as did Solomon’s wives before he married them. 

Rabbinic tradition considers marrying any non-Jewish person to be forbidden, though there’s some dispute over whether the prohibition derives directly from Deuteronomy or from later rabbinic rulings, which would render intermarriage a less serious violation than if it were directly prohibited by the Torah. The most extensive treatment of this in the Talmud is found in Avodah Zarah 36b, which features a claim that the verse from Deuteronomy applies only to the seven nations and that it was later rabbinic authorities who extended it to include all non-Jews. The Talmud then records a dissenting opinion from Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai, who homes in on the Torah’s expressed concern that such marriages might cause Jews to turn away from God, reasoning that the biblical prohibition applies to all unions with non-Jews that might lead to such an outcome. 

Maimonides is explicit that marriage with any non-Jew violates a biblical law: 

When a Jew engages in relations with a woman from other nations, [taking her] as his spouse, or a Jewess engages in relations with a non-Jew as her spouse, they are punished by lashes, according to scriptural law. As [Deuteronomy 7:3] states: “You shall not intermarry with them. Do not give your daughter to his son, and do not take his daughter for your son.” This prohibition applies equally to [individuals from] the seven [Canaanite] nations and all other gentiles. (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Forbidden Intercourse 12)

The understanding of intermarriage as a violation of Jewish law continues to be upheld today by nearly all Orthodox and Conservative rabbis, the latter formally barred from officiating at weddings between a Jew and a non-Jews by the Code of Ethics of the Rabbinical Assembly, the Conservative movement’s rabbinic association. The Reform movement, which doesn’t consider itself bound by Jewish law, maintained a formal opposition to intermarriage into the 1980s, but by 2018 survey data indicated that the overwhelming majority of Reform rabbis would officiate at intermarriages. In 2024, the movement’s rabbinical school formally dropped its longstanding ban on ordaining intermarried rabbis and cantors.

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